TIMED: TIMe experience in Europe’s Digital age

During the last two decades, there has been a significant increase in the use of digital technology in our work, social and personal lives. As a result, many people now live in a state of “permanent connectivity” which enables them to be contacted at anytime, anywhere, and to seek information and stimulation with greater ease and immediacy than ever before. As a result, the traditional boundaries between work-time and personal-time can appear evermore blurred and the pace of life can feel increasingly fast. This is in part because the rhythm of daily life is now dictated by digital devices.

Exactly how increasing digital technology use is affecting the availability of time, our use of time and experience of temporality is currently unknown. At an individual level, it is unclear whether digitalisation is enhancing time availability and wellbeing or reducing free time and quality of life. At a societal level, it is unclear whether increased digitalisation is having a unifying or divisive effect on the European sense of time.

The TIMED project will establish how and why the perception, use and allocation of time are affected by personal levels of digitalisation and cultural norms, and how this then impacts on quality of life. This will be achieved through a series of studies using interviews, online questionnaires, psychophysiological recording and real-time behaviour analysis. Data will be collected in the Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Spain, Switzerland and the UK to enable cross-cultural comparisons within Europe.

The information generated in the TIMED project will enable us to, for the first time, establish how digitalisation affects individual and societal temporal experience. In doing so, the project will identify who is experiencing a temporal benefit from digitalisation, and who experiences a temporal cost. This information will have significant implications for the health, wellbeing and economic activity in the digital age. It will also help to shape a future in which we are better to maximise the benefits of increased digitalisation on temporal experience whilst mitigating against the costs of an ever more connected life.

KEYWORDS:

digitalization, time experience, passage of time, time pressure, well-being, free time, society

CONSORTIUM

  • Project Leader: Ruth Ogden,  Liverpool John Moores University, School of Psychology, United Kingdom, e-mail
  • Nuria Codina, University of Barcelona, Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, Spain, e-mail
  • Vanda Černohorská, Institute of Philosophy of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre for Science, Technology, and Society Studies, Czechia, e-mail
    Filip Vostal, Institute of Philosophy of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre for Science, Technology, and Society Studies, Czechia (in the role of PI from October 2022-May 2023), e-mail
  • Chantal Martin-Soelch, University Fribourg, Psychology, Switzerland, e-mail
  • Marc Wittmann, Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health, Germany, e-mail
  • Joanna Witowska, University of Warsaw, Faculty of Psychology, Poland, e-mail
  • Omar ABOU KHALED, HES-SO / HumanTech Institute HES-SO / HumanTech Institute, Switzerland

COOPERATION PARTERS

  • Anna Mowbray, The Community Trade Union UK
  • Partick Roach, NASUWT The Teachers Union
  • Allison Roach, Unison
  • Dietrich Henckel, German Society for Time policy (DGfZP)
  • Vit Samek, Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions
  • Dr Jame Nye, The Antiquarian Horological Society
  • Lianne Kerlin, BBC
  • Dominique de Quervain, EPFL: Stress Network
  • Abigail Gilbert, Institute for the Future of Work
  • Nadia Ranceva, Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust
  • Dr Louise Theodosiou, Manchester Foundation NHS Trust

EFFECTS & ACHIEVEMENTS

Project website

Project achievements:

Digital technologies are sold to us as devices which make life quicker and easier, but does their increasing use really buy us more time? The TIMED project sought to answer this question by examining how digital technology is changing the way people across Europe use and experience time. Using a mixed methodological approach involving questionnaires, interviews and experimental studies TIMED examined 1) how digital technology shapes time availability on a day-to-day basis, 2) how digital time impacts health and wellbeing, 3) what it means to have free time in a digital age, and 4) how digital deprivation alters temporal experience. Data was collected from over 15,000 people residing in Czechia, Germany, Poland, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

The results showed that rather than saving time, increasing adoption of digital technologies is leading to a denser form of life where periods of empty time are extremely scarcest. People use digital technology to free time because they fear empty time is wasted or dead time, doing something is therefore seen as preferable to doing nothing. However, as a result, many people live in a state of chronic time pressure which exacerbates feelings of depression, anxiety and stress. Despite a preference for filling spare time with digital media, many people experienced guilt and regret about their digital time. Participants noted that they frequently lost track of time when using digital technology, leading to an unintentional overextension of the duration of technology use. They also frequently experienced digital content as inauthentic, lacking in sufficient higher order stimulation and misaligned with goal-directed behaviour. These factors, combined with a belief that time on digital technology must be bad because society tells you that it is, led to a sense of digital time being wasted time that could have been better invested elsewhere. As a result, people reported striving for a more balanced use of technology in which they had more control over the amount of time spent in the digital world. Critically, there was little cross-cultural difference in the impact of digital technology on experiences of time in the country’s studies suggesting that pan-European approaches to improving digital health can be implemented through policy, education and regulation.

Based on the findings of TIMED it is recommended that:

  1. Governments must assess the quality of digital experiences, not only screen time. Longterm national monitoring using validated tools such as TIMED’s IDLS and QDES will enable the development of evidence-based policies to improve digital health that reflect real life digital practices.
  2. Success metrics for platforms should prioritise experience quality over usage duration to guide algorithms, content design, and standards.
  3. To reduce regretful or excessive use, platforms should be required to include time-awareness features such as optional reminders or pause prompts.
  4. Time poverty should be recognised as a public health issue. Digital technologies intensify time pressure by eroding boundaries, with women disproportionately affected. Workplace policies promoting digital disconnection and realistic availability expectations are essential.

Publications:

  • Ogden, R., Codina, N., Černohorská, V., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Schoetensack, C., Vicente Pestana, J., Giner Dominguez, G., Klegr, T., Meiter, Q., Chappuis, S., Papastamatelou, J., Goncikowska, K., How Digital Technology Can Steal Your Time, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 169, 2025, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2025.108680
  • Ogden, R., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Meiter, Q., Chappuis, S., Délèze, A., Effect of Task Nature During Short Digital Deprivation on Time Perception and Psychophysiological State, Scientific Reports, vol. 15, 2025, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94316-3
  • Ogden, R., Codina, N., Černohorská, V., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Schoetensack, C., Vicente Pestana, J., Giner Dominguez, G., Papastamatelou, J., Goncikowska, K., Fernández Boente, M., New Measurements of Digital Technology Use: The Immersion in Digital Life and Quality of Digital Experience Scales, Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 16, 2025, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1595536
  • Ogden, R., Codina, N., Černohorská, V., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Schoetensack, C., Vicente Pestana, J., Giner Dominguez, G., Klegr, T., Meiter, Q., Chappuis, S., Papastamatelou, J., Goncikowska, K., Valenzuela, R., Fernández Boente, M., Validation of the Immersion in Digital Life and Quality of Digital Experience Scales, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2026, 0.3389/fpsyt.2025.1645260
  • Ogden, R., Codina, N., Černohorská, V., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Schoetensack, C., Vicente Pestana, J., Giner Dominguez, G., Klegr, T., Meiter, Q., Chappuis, S., Papastamatelou, J., Goncikowska, K., Chronic Time Pressure as a Predictor of Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety and Stress, BMC Psychology, vol. 13, 2025, 10.1186/s40359-025-03654-4
  • Ogden, R., Codina, N., Černohorská, V., Martin-Soelch, C., Wittmann, M., Witowska, J., Schoetensack, C., Vicente Pestana, J., Klegr, T., Papastamatelou, J., Marentes-Castillo, M., Valenzuela, R., Problematic Internet Use Predicts Lesser Satisfaction with Life, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol. 28(9), 2025, https://doi.org/10.1177/21522715251365537
  • Ogden, R., Schoetensack, C., Chappuis, S., Conference Reflections: Navigating Time and Wellbeing in the Digital Age, Gender and Research, vol. 26(1), 2025, https://www.genderonline.cz/pdfs/gav/2025/01/06.pdf
  • Witowska, J., Goncikowska, K., Zaron, M., Mitigation Techniques for Balanced Digital Engagement: Evidence from a Qualitative Study Among Polish Adults, New Media & Society, SAGE, 2026
  • Codina, N., Vicente Pestana, J., Giner Dominguez, G., Valenzuela, R., The Ambivalent Nature of Digital Leisure: Insights from a Qualitative Study in Spain, World Leisure Journal, Taylor & Francis, 2026
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., What makes good digital time? Finding the balance between productivity and control, Computers in Human Behavior, Elsevier, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Marentes Castillo M., Valenzuela R., Fernández Boente M., Understanding Digital Immersion and Experience Across Europe: How Age Shapes Digital Engagement, Computers in Human Behavior, Elsevier, 2026
  • Ogden R., Schoetensack C., The role of emotion regulation in experiences of time pressure, time autonomy and work-life balance, Timing and Time Perception, Brill, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Unger A., The vanishing hours: Future temporal focus and the passage of time in the digital era, Personality and Individual Differences, Elsevier, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Unger A., Emotional neglect and abuse in childhood: Is time on our side? Emotional states, the passage of time, BMC Psychology, Springer, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., The good, the bad and the ugly of digital technology use: The three time paradoxes, Time & Society, SAGE, 2025
  • Černohorská V., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Goncikowska K., Connected and Confined: Memories of digital experiences and their impact on autonomy, competence and relatedness during the COVID-19 pandemic, Current Psychology, Springer, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Marentes Castillo M., Valenzuela R., Fernández-Boente M., Time pressure and procrastination as mediators between problematic internet use and well-being in six European countries, BMC Psychology, Springer, 2026
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Valenzuela R., Daher K., Fernández-Boente M., Unraveling the Link Between Digital Technology and Mental Health: Evidence from Distinct Network Patterns, Scientific Reports, Springer Nature, 2026
  • Černohorská V., Klegr T., Czech Adaptation of the Temporal Focus Scale (TFS): A Psychometric Analysis, Current Psychology, Springer Nature, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Denovan A., Dagnall N., Psychometric evaluation of the Chronic Time Pressure Inventory: cross-cultural comparisons and establishing norms across five European nations, Current Psychology, 2025
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Marentes Castillo M., Valenzuela R., Daher K., Angelini L., Decoding Digital Immersion Beyond Screen Time: A Clustering Analysis of User Profiles and Their Relation to Mental Health, 2026, https://www.timed-europe.net/
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Schoetensack C., Vicente Pestana J., Giner Dominguez G., Klegr T., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Papastamatelou J., Goncikowska K., Marentes Castillo M., Valenzuela R., Daher K., Angelini L., From App to Insights: Mapping Mood, Stress, Reward and Social Media use in Real Time, 2026, https://www.timed-europe.net/
  • Ogden R., Codina N., Černohorská V., Martin-Soelch Ch., Wittmann M., Witowska J., Meiter Q., Chappuis S., Digital Deprivation and Reward Processing: Behavioral and Physiological Evidence from a Wheel of Fortune Task, 2026, https://www.timed-europe.net/

 Start date

28 October 2022

Project duration

36 months

 Project budget

€ 1 561 444

Funding organisations